AHSEC CLASS 12th Logic And Philosophy Solved Question Paper 2020
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AHSEC Class 12 Logic and Philosophy Solved Question Paper Overview:
Name of Board: AHSEC
Subject: Logic and Philosophy (Solved)
Year: 2020
Class: HS 2nd Year
Type: Text
Official website: ahsec.assam.gov.in
Category: AHSEC Logic and Philosophy Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2020, Class 12 Logic and Philosophy Solved Question Papers 2020.
2020
Logic and Philosophy
(Solved paper)
Ahsec class 12
Question Papers' 2020
Full Marks: 100
Pass Marks: 30
Time: Three hours
The figures in the margin indicate full marks for the questions.
1. Give very short answers: 1x12=12
(a) What is the assence of Induction?
Ans:- Induction is the process of deriving general conclusions from specific observations or examples.
(b) Does Analogy depend on Law of Causation?
Ans:- Yes, analogy depends on the law of causation.
(c) What kind of proposition does Scientific Induction establish?
Ans:- Scientific induction establishes universal propositions.
(d) ‘The ground of the Induction is the result of Induction’ – Who made this statement?
Ans:- John Stuart Mill made the statement.
(e) Name the hypothesis with the help of which the planet Neptune was discovered.
Ans:- The hypothesis of gravitational perturbations was used to discover Neptune.
(f) How many instances are required for the Method of Agreement?
Ans:- Three instances are required for the method of agreement.
(g) Who is the Propounder of Scientific Realism?
Ans:- Bas van Fraassen is the propounder of scientific realism.
(h) Give an example of Primary Quality.
Ans:- An example of a primary quality is size.
(i) Give an example of Non-Moral action.
Ans:- An example of a non-moral action is eating.
(j) What is the ideal of Ethics?
Ans:- The ideal of ethics is to determine what is right and wrong behavior.
(k) “Religion is morality touched with emotion” – Who said this?
Ans:- Robert Ingersoll said that "Religion is morality touched with emotion".
(k) “Religion is morality touched with emotion” – Who said this?
Ans:- The Latin word "Religare" means "to bind" or "to connect".
2. Give the definition of Unscientific Induction. 2
Ans:- Unscientific Induction is a term used in philosophy of science to refer to inductive reasoning that lacks sufficient evidence or fails to follow logical patterns. It is considered unscientific because it is not based on empirical data or sound reasoning.
3. What is ‘material cause’? Give an example. 1+1=2
Ans:- Material cause refers to the physical substance or matter that constitutes an object or phenomenon. An example of material cause is the clay used to make a pot.
4. Define ‘Plurality of Causes’ with a suitable example. 1+1=2
Ans:- Plurality of Causes refers to the idea that a single phenomenon or event can have multiple causes. For example, the growth of a tree can be influenced by a variety of factors such as soil quality, sunlight, water, and air. All these factors can be considered causes of the tree's growth, and none can be singled out as the sole or primary cause.
Or
Mention two points of difference between Observation and Experiment.
Ans:- Two differences between Observation and Experiment are:
1.Control: An experiment involves controlling certain variables in order to study their effect on the outcome, whereas observation does not involve controlling variables.
2. Manipulation: In an experiment, the researcher manipulates one or more variables to observe their effect on the outcome, while in observation, the researcher simply observes and records data without manipulating variables.
5. Why is Ethics called Normative Science? 2
Ans:- Ethics is called normative science because it deals with moral norms and values, rather than empirical facts and observations. Ethics seeks to establish what is right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust, etc.
6. Give Mill’s definition of Method of Residue. 2
Ans:- John Stuart Mill's definition of the Method of Residue is a philosophical method of discovering the underlying cause of a phenomenon by eliminating alternative explanations through systematic elimination. Mill believed that this method can be applied to any complex phenomenon to reveal its underlying cause. The Method of Residue involves starting with a broad range of possible explanations and then eliminating those that are inconsistent with the facts, until the most likely explanation remains.
Or
Give a concreate example of the Joint Method of Agreement and Difference. 2
Ans:- The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference is a method used in causal inference to determine if a variable causes an effect. Here's an example:
Suppose we want to determine if watching too much television causes obesity. To use the Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, we would:
1. Look for cases where two individuals have similar characteristics, but only one watches too much television. If this individual is more likely to be obese, this provides evidence that watching too much television causes obesity.
2. Look for cases where two individuals have different characteristics, but both watch the same amount of television. If the individuals with different characteristics have similar levels of obesity, this provides evidence that watching too much television does not cause obesity.
7. Mention any two conditions of a valid hypothesis. 2
Ans:- The conditions of valid hypothesis are as follows:
1) The hypothesis must not be self contradictory or absurd but should be conceivable and finite.
2) The hypothesis must be free from conflict with establish truths that means the supposition should not violate a law of which we have positive evidence.
8. Define voluntary action. How many stages are there in a voluntary action? 1+1=2
Ans:- Voluntary action refers to a conscious, deliberate, and intentional act performed by an individual, which is not solely driven by reflexes or automatic processes. There are typically three stages in a voluntary action: intention, initiation, and execution.
9. Give two points of differences between Primary Quality and Secondary Quality. 2
Ans:- The two main differences between primary qualities and secondary qualities are:
1. Primary qualities are considered to be inherent and objective properties of physical objects, such as size, shape, and mass, while secondary qualities are considered to be subjective and perceived by the observer, such as color, taste, and odor.
2. Primary qualities can be measured and quantified, while secondary qualities cannot be measured or quantified in the same way.
10. Give an example of ‘hypothesis concerning law’. 2
Ans:- An example of a hypothesis concerning a law would be "the law of gravitation states that every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them."
Or
Define ‘working hypotheses. 2
Ans:- Working hypotheses are provisional ideas or explanations that are used as a starting point for further investigation and testing. They serve as a basis for conducting experiments or gathering evidence in order to support or disprove them.
11. Mention the ‘Canon of Elimination’ on which the Method of Difference is established. 2
Ans:- The Canon of Elimination is a principle that states that a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables can be established if, and only if, the effect disappears when the cause is removed. This principle forms the basis for the Method of Difference, a commonly used experimental design in scientific research.
12. Mention two characteristics of Native Realism. 2
Ans:- Two characteristics of Native Realism are: (1) It is a non-idealistic view of reality that holds that the external world exists independently of our perception of it, and (2) It is based on the idea that perception is a direct and unmediated process, where the mind passively receives information from the environment without actively constructing it.
Or
Write two criticisms of Native Realism.
Ans:- Native Realism, a philosophical view that holds that the objects of perception have the properties they appear to have to the perceiver, has faced two criticisms:
a) The "Ungroundedness" criticism, which argues that Native Realism does not provide an adequate explanation for the relationship between the perceiver and the perceived object.
b) The "Ad Hoc" criticism, which argues that Native Realism invokes ad hoc hypotheses to explain perceptual variation and error, without providing a systematic account of perception.
13. What is the theory of ‘pre-established harmony’? 2
Ans:- The theory of 'pre-established harmony' is a philosophical doctrine, primarily associated with Leibniz, which holds that the universe is comprised of monads, or simple substances, that are completely independent and self-sufficient, but are brought into harmony with each other by God in such a way that they seem to interact causally. According to this theory, the apparent causal interactions between monads are simply the result of their pre-arranged harmony and do not involve any real causal influence.
14. Write four characteristics of Scientific Realism. 4
Ans:- Four Characteristics of Scientific Realism are:
1.The belief that there exists an objective reality independent of our perception of it.
2.The scientific theories aim to represent the true nature of reality and are continually tested and refined through experimentation.
3.Scientific realism holds that scientific theories are approximately true and successful in explaining the world.
4.Scientific realism also assumes that our scientific knowledge of the world is a progressive accumulation of knowledge that is never final.
15. What are the four stages of hypothesis? Discuss 4
Ans:- Four Stages of Hypothesis:
1.Problem definition: The first stage involves identifying the problem or issue that needs to be addressed.
2.Generation of hypotheses: In this stage, the researcher generates potential explanations or answers to the problem.
3.Testing of hypotheses: The researcher then tests the hypotheses through experiments or observation.
4.Acceptance or rejection of hypotheses: Based on the results of the testing, the researcher either accepts or rejects the hypothesis, and the process continues until a satisfactory explanation is reached.
16. Give four characteristics of Hegel’s Objective Idealism. 4
Ans:- Four Characteristics of Hegel's Objective Idealism are:
1.The idea that the ultimate reality is not physical matter but is rather a spiritual or mental entity.
2.The view that the external world and our perceptions of it are not separate, but rather, they are a product of the mind.
3.The belief that history and the development of human consciousness are determined by an absolute spirit or idea.
4.Hegel’s objective idealism posits that knowledge is a process of continuous self-discovery, in which individuals and society constantly come to understand their place in the world.
17. Mention two advantages and two disadvantages of the Method of Residue. 2+2=4
Ans:- Advantages of the Method of Residues:
a) It is a useful method for solving complex integrals.
b) It allows for the calculation of real and complex integrals.
Disadvantages of the Method of Residues:
a) It can be difficult to find the poles of a function.
b) It requires a strong understanding of complex analysis.
Or
What is the ‘Characteristic Imperfection’ of Method of Agreement? How can the problem be overcome? 2
Ans:- The "Characteristic Imperfection" of the Method of Agreement (MOA) is a flaw in the logic of the method, which states that two things that agree in some respect must agree in all respects. In MOA, it is assumed that a common cause is responsible for the observed agreement. However, this is not necessarily always the case, as two events or phenomena could be coincidentally similar but have different causes.
The problem can be overcome by using the Method of Difference (MOD) in conjunction with MOA. MOD involves comparing cases where the agreement is present to cases where the agreement is absent, in order to determine if a common cause is responsible for the observed agreement. By using both MOA and MOD, the characteristic imperfection can be reduced, as MOD helps to confirm or disprove the assumption of a common cause made in MOA.
18. Write any four characteristics of Analogy. 4
Ans:- 1.Comparison: Analogy involves comparing two or more things to show similarities and relationships.
2.Association: Analogy creates an association between two different objects, concepts, or ideas.
3.Reasoning: Analogy is often used as a form of reasoning to explain complex concepts or draw conclusions based on known information.
4.Metaphor: Analogy can be considered a type of metaphor, as it uses figurative language to convey meaning beyond the literal definitions of words.
19. ‘Positive and Negative conditions both taken together produce the effect’. – Explain the statement 4
Ans:- This statement is referring to the idea that both positive and negative factors contribute to the overall outcome or effect. The presence of positive conditions alone may not necessarily produce the desired result, and the same can be said for negative conditions. It is the combination of both positive and negative factors that ultimately determines the result. This highlights the importance of considering both positive and negative influences when making decisions or evaluating outcomes.
To elaborate further, this statement suggests that it is the balance or interplay between positive and negative factors that produces the final outcome. For example, in a business setting, positive factors such as strong leadership and financial stability may be offset by negative factors such as high competition and economic uncertainty. The impact of both positive and negative conditions must be considered together to fully understand the potential success or failure of a particular situation or decision.
Similarly, in the medical field, a patient's positive factors such as good health habits and family support can be offset by negative factors such as a pre-existing medical condition or a lack of access to healthcare resources. In this case, the effect of both positive and negative conditions must be taken into account when making a diagnosis or treatment plan.
20. “Esse Est Percipi” – Explain briefly the statement. 4
Ans:- "Esse est percipi" is a Latin phrase that means "to be is to be perceived". It is a philosophical statement often attributed to the Irish philosopher George Berkeley, who argued that objects exist only in the minds of those who perceive them, and that the perceived qualities of an object are what define its existence. In other words, an object only exists because it is perceived or known by a mind.
Berkeley's philosophy is known as subjective idealism, which holds that the external world is dependent on the mind for its existence and that the only objects of our perception are the perceptions themselves. According to this view, an object is not an independent entity that exists in and of itself, but is instead a creation of the mind. Berkeley believed that perception and the mind were closely connected, and that the act of perception was what brought the external world into existence.
Esse est percipi is often seen as a radical philosophical idea, as it challenges the traditional notion of objective reality and the existence of things independent of our perception of them. While Berkeley's ideas were influential in the development of certain philosophical movements, they have also been widely criticized and continue to be the subject of much debate and discussion in the philosophy of perception and epistemology.
Or
Define Berkeley’s Subjective Idealism. Is Berkeley a Solipsist? 2+2=4
Ans:- Berkeley's Subjective Idealism is a philosophical theory stating that the external world consists only of ideas and perceptions in the mind, and there is no material substance underlying them. According to this theory, everything that exists is dependent on being perceived, and objects only exist as ideas in the minds of perceivers.
Berkeley himself rejected solipsism, which is the belief that only one's own mind and experiences can be known and verified, and that the external world is uncertain or nonexistent. Instead, Berkeley believed in the existence of a divine mind, which perceives and sustains the reality of all things.
21. Is Ethics a practical science? Explain. 4
Ans:- Ethics is often considered a practical science because its aim is to provide practical guidance for how to live a good life and make moral decisions. Ethics helps individuals understand what actions and behaviors are right and wrong, and how to act in accordance with their values and moral principles.
However, some philosophers argue that ethics is not a science because it does not rely on empirical evidence or formal methods of inquiry. Instead, ethical theories and principles are often based on reason, intuition, and tradition.
Ultimately, whether ethics can be considered a practical science is a matter of philosophical debate and depends on one's definition of science and the nature of ethical inquiry. Some might argue that the practical aspect of ethics makes it a science, while others might argue that its lack of empirical evidence and reliance on reason makes it more of an art or a philosophy.
22. ‘Religion is the source of Morality’. – Explain the statement. 4
Ans:- The statement "Religion is the source of morality" means that religious beliefs and teachings are considered by many people as the basis or origin of ethical behavior and moral values. The principles and commandments that are set forth in religious texts are used as guidelines for right and wrong behavior. This belief is held by many religious individuals and communities, but there are also philosophical and secular perspectives that challenge this idea and argue that morality can come from other sources such as reason, empathy, or cultural norms.
To further expand on the statement, many religious traditions view morality as a fundamental aspect of their faith and a means of achieving a closer relationship with a deity or deities. For example, in Christianity, the Ten Commandments are seen as divinely inspired laws that guide human behavior, and the concept of "sin" is used to describe actions that violate these moral principles. In other religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism, the principles of karma and dharma, respectively, outline a moral code of conduct that is meant to bring about positive outcomes in this life and the next.
23. Write four characteristics of Religion. 4.
Ans:- 1.Belief in a higher power or supernatural force: Religion is often characterized by the belief in one or more deities, spirits, or other supernatural entities that are worshiped or revered.
2.Sacred Texts and Traditions: Most religious traditions have a collection of written texts or oral traditions that are considered sacred and are used to guide beliefs and practices.
3.Rituals and Practices: Religion often involves specific rituals and practices, such as prayer, meditation, offerings, or sacraments, that are used to connect with the divine and express devotion.
4.Community and Social Aspects: Religion can also serve as a source of community and social support, bringing people together in shared beliefs and practices, and providing a sense of belonging and purpose.
24. What is Scientific Induction? What are the characteristics of Scientific Induction? 2+4=6
Ans:- Scientific induction is a method of reasoning in which a general conclusion is drawn from specific observations and experiments. The goal of scientific induction is to form a theory or hypothesis that can explain a set of facts and make predictions about future observations.
The characteristics of scientific induction are:
1.Empiricism: Scientific induction is based on empirical evidence gathered through observation and experimentation.
2.Logical consistency: The conclusions drawn from scientific induction must be logically consistent with the evidence and the laws of nature.
3.Tentative conclusions: Scientific induction produces tentative conclusions that are subject to further testing and revision.
4.Inductive reasoning: Scientific induction uses inductive reasoning, which is the process of generalizing from particular instances to reach a more general conclusion.
5.Falsifiability: Scientific induction requires that the theories and hypotheses produced through induction be falsifiable, meaning that they can be tested and possibly proven false.
6.Parsimony: Scientific induction requires that the simplest explanation that fits the evidence be preferred over more complex explanations.
Or
State any three similarities and any three dissimilarities between Scientific Induction and Unscientific Induction. 3+3=6
Ans:- Similarities between Scientific and Unscientific Induction:
Both involve making inferences about the future based on observations of the past or present.
Both use observations and patterns to form a conclusion.
Both may involve making predictions or assumptions based on incomplete data.
Dissimilarities between Scientific and Unscientific Induction:
Scientific induction is based on empirical evidence and systematic observation, while unscientific induction may be based on personal beliefs, intuition, or bias.
Scientific induction is subject to rigorous testing and revision, while unscientific induction may not be.
Scientific induction aims to form theories that are as close to the truth as possible, while unscientific induction may not have this goal.
25. What is simple Observation? Describe its characteristics. 1+5=6
Ans:- Observation is the act of observing or monitoring events, objects, people, or processes. Simple observation refers to a method of data collection where the researcher simply records what they see or hear without interfering in the situation.
Characteristics of simple observation include:
1.Non-intrusive: Simple observation does not involve the researcher interfering with the situation being observed.
2.Objective: The researcher does not impose their own biases or interpretations on the observations.
3.Passive: The researcher does not actively participate in the situation, but simply records what is happening.
4.Unstructured: Simple observation does not follow a pre-determined set of rules or guidelines, allowing the researcher to be flexible in their approach.
5.Qualitative: Simple observation produces qualitative data, meaning that it provides a descriptive account of events rather than numerical data.
Or
Define ‘Causes’. Write the Qualitative and Quantative marks of ‘Causes’. 1+5=6
Ans:- A cause refers to a factor or reason that produces an effect or results in a specific outcome. It is often referred to as the source or origin of something, or the underlying reason for its existence or occurrence. The concept of cause and effect is central to many fields, including science, philosophy, and economics, and is used to explain and understand the relationships between events and processes.
Quantitative marks of a "cause" refer to the measure of the strength or magnitude of the causal relationship. For example, a strong cause would have a high correlation, while a weak cause would have a low correlation.
Qualitative marks of a "cause" refer to the descriptive or characteristic features of the causal relationship. For example, a cause may be direct or indirect, necessary or sufficient, proximal or distal, etc. These qualitative marks help to describe the nature and structure of the causal relationship and provide a more complete understanding of the cause-and-effect relationship.
Quantitative marks:
1.Strength: The strength of a causal relationship can be measured using various statistical methods such as correlation, regression, etc.
2.Direction: The direction of the causal relationship can be determined, for example, whether the cause precedes the effect or vice versa.
3.Magnitude: The magnitude of the effect of a cause can be estimated, for example, the size of the effect or the amount of change that occurs as a result of the cause.
Qualitative marks:
1.Temporality: The temporal relationship between the cause and effect can be determined, for example, whether the cause precedes the effect or follows it.
2.Necessity: A cause may be necessary for the effect to occur, meaning that the effect cannot occur without the cause.
3.Sufficiency: A cause may be sufficient for the effect to occur, meaning that the presence of the cause is enough to bring about the effect.
4.Proximity: The proximity of the cause to the effect can be determined, for example, whether the cause is close to the effect or far away.
These qualitative and quantitative marks help to provide a comprehensive understanding of the causal relationship and are essential for developing theories and hypotheses about the causes of various phenomena.
26. What is a ‘hypothesis’? Explain the nature of hypothesis. 1+5=6
Ans:- A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for an observation or phenomenon that can be tested through further investigation. It is a statement that attempts to link a cause and effect relationship between variables.
about the nature of a hypothesis:
1.Predictive: A good hypothesis should make a prediction about the relationship between variables, allowing for a testable outcome.
2.Falsifiable: A hypothesis should be able to be tested and potentially proven false. This allows for scientific advancement and a better understanding of a phenomenon.
3.Based on evidence: A hypothesis should be based on existing evidence and prior research, and should aim to provide a logical explanation for observed patterns or relationships.
4.Open to revision: As new evidence is gathered, a hypothesis may be revised or rejected, leading to the development of a new hypothesis.
5.Specific: A hypothesis should be specific and clearly state the relationships being tested. This allows for clear, concise testing and interpretation of results.
Or
What are the different kinds of hypothesis according to Stebbing? 6
Ans:- According to L. Susan Stebbing, there are three types of hypothesis:
1.Theoretical Hypothesis: It is a statement about the relationship between variables and is used to explain a phenomenon.
2.Verification Hypothesis: It is a prediction about the result of an experiment, designed to test the validity of a theoretical hypothesis.
3.Explanatory Hypothesis: It explains the cause-and-effect relationship between variables and is often used to make predictions about the outcome of an experiment.
4.Null Hypothesis: It is a statement that there is no significant difference between the expected results and the observed results of a study.
5.Alternative Hypothesis: It is the opposite of the null hypothesis, stating that there is a significant difference between the expected results and the observed results.
6.Research Hypothesis: It is a statement about the expected relationship between variables in a study, usually formulated before conducting the research.
7.Statistical Hypothesis:
27. State Mill’s canon of the ‘Method of Concomitant Variation’. Explain the limitations of this Method. 2+4=6
Ans:- John Stuart Mill's "Canon of Concomitant Variation" states that if two variables are directly related, a change in one will result in a change in the other, and the magnitude of that change will be proportional. This means that if there is a relationship between two variables, a change in one of the variables will cause a change in the other variable in the same direction and to a similar extent.
However, this method has several limitations:
1.Causality: Mill's Canon cannot determine causality, it can only establish a relationship between two variables.
2.Non-proportional relationships: The canon assumes a proportional relationship between variables, but real-life relationships may not always be proportional.
3.Confounding variables: The method assumes that there are no other factors that may affect the relationship between variables, which may lead to incorrect conclusions.
4.Self-selection bias: The method assumes that the relationship between variables is not influenced by self-selection, which can lead to incorrect conclusions if individuals select into a particular situation based on their characteristics.
In summary, Mill's Canon of Concomitant Variation is a useful method for establishing a relationship between two variables, but it has limitations that need to be taken into account when interpreting results.
Or
Explain the Method of Difference with examples. 6
Ans:- The Method of Differences is a mathematical technique used to find the nth term of a sequence in which the consecutive terms differ by a constant amount. It involves subtracting one term from another to find the difference and using that information to find the nth term.
Example 1: Consider the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, ... where each term is obtained by adding 3 to the previous term. To find the nth term, we can use the method of differences. The first difference between terms is 5 - 2 = 3, which is the constant difference between terms. The nth term can then be found by using the formula: a_n = a_1 + (n-1)d, where a_1 is the first term (2), d is the common difference (3), and n is the term we want to find.
Example 2: Consider the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, ... where each term is obtained by squaring the previous term. To find the nth term, we can use the method of differences. The first difference between terms is 4 - 1 = 3, the second difference between terms is 9 - 4 = 5, which is not constant. To find the nth term, we can use the formula: a_n = a_1 + (n-1)d_1 + (n-1)(n-2)/2d_2, where a_1 is the first term (1), d_1 is the first difference (3), d_2 is the second difference (5), and n is the term we want to find.
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AHSEC Class 12 Logic and Philosophy Question Paper 2020
Also Read :- AHSEC Class 12 Logic and Philosophy Notes