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AHSEC Class 12 Logic and Philosophy Solved Question Paper 2024
2024
Logic And Philosophy
Full Marks: 100
Pass Marks: 30
Time: Three hours
The figures in the margin indicate full marks for the questions.
1. Give very short answers: 1x12=12
(a) "Logic is a normative science." Is the statement true?
Answer: Yes, the statement is true. Logic is called a normative science because it provides rules and principles for correct reasoning. It helps distinguish between valid and invalid arguments.
(b) What kind of proposition does Scientific Induction establish?
Answer: Scientific induction establishes universal propositions or general laws. These laws are derived based on observed particular instances and verified by experiments and causal connections.
(c) What is the ground of Unscientific Induction?
Answer: The ground of unscientific induction is the mere observation or association of events. Unlike scientific induction, it lacks a causal or logical connection.
(d) Who is the propounder of Scientific Realism?
Answer: The propounder of Scientific Realism is Aristotle, who laid the foundation for understanding reality based on empirical observations.
(e) Give one example of a non-moral action.
Answer: An example of a non-moral action is brushing one’s teeth. Such actions are neither moral nor immoral, as they don’t involve ethical considerations.
(f) What word does Buddha use to mean 'Moksa' or 'Liberation'?
Answer: Buddha uses the word Nirvana to mean 'Moksha' or 'Liberation.' It signifies freedom from the cycle of birth and death (samsara).
(g) Which theory of Truth does Naive Realism support?
Answer: Naive Realism supports the Correspondence Theory of Truth. This theory states that truth corresponds to facts or reality.
(h) "Religion is faith in the conservation of values." Who said this?
Answer: This statement was made by Herbert Spencer. He emphasized the importance of religion in upholding universal values.
(i) On which law is the quantitative marks of a cause based?
Answer: The quantitative marks of a cause are based on the Law of Causation. This law explains the relationship between cause and effect in terms of quantity.
(j) How many instances are required for the method of difference?
Answer: The method of difference requires two instances: one where the phenomenon occurs and another where it does not occur, to identify the causal factor.
(k) What is the meaning of the Greek word 'Ethos'?
Answer: The Greek word ‘Ethos’ means character or habit. It refers to the moral character or guiding beliefs of a person or society.
(l) "Hypothesis is a provisional supposition." Is it true?
Answer: Yes, this statement is true. A hypothesis is a tentative or provisional assumption made to explain certain phenomena, which is then tested for validity through experimentation and observation.
2. Give an example of Good Analogy.
Answer: A good analogy is comparing the structure of an atom to the solar system, where the nucleus is like the sun, and the electrons orbit like planets.
Or
Give the definition of Scientific Induction.
Answer: Scientific induction is the process of inferring a general law or principle from specific observed instances, based on the assumption of a causal connection.
3. What do you mean by 'conjunction of causes'?
Answer: A conjunction of causes refers to a situation where two or more independent causes work together to produce a single effect.
Or
State two advantages of Simple Observation.
Answer:
It is easy to conduct as it does not require any special tools or experiments.
It helps gather firsthand and authentic information about phenomena.
4. Mention two differences between Primary Quality and Secondary Quality.
Answer:
Primary qualities (e.g., shape, size) are objective and exist in the object itself, while secondary qualities (e.g., color, taste) are subjective and depend on the observer.
Primary qualities are measurable, whereas secondary qualities are perceptual.
5. "Esse est percipi" Give the meaning of the statement.
Answer: The phrase "Esse est percipi," by George Berkeley, means "To be is to be perceived." It implies that objects exist only when perceived by a mind.
Or
What is the theory of 'Pre-established Harmony'?
Answer: The theory of Pre-established Harmony, proposed by Leibniz, states that there is a predetermined coordination between the mind and body, set by God, without direct interaction between them.
6. Give an example of Fallacy of Non-observation.
Answer: An example of the fallacy of non-observation is concluding that all swans are white based on observing only white swans, ignoring the existence of black swans.
7. What are the postulates of Ethics?
Answer:
The freedom of the will (moral responsibility assumes that actions are voluntary).
The existence of moral laws or principles.
Or
What is the meaning of 'intention' in Ethics?
Answer: In Ethics, 'intention' refers to the purpose or aim behind an action, which determines its moral value.
8. Write any two criticisms of Naive Realism.
Answer:
It fails to explain perceptual errors, such as illusions or hallucinations.
It overlooks the role of the mind in interpreting sensory data.
9. Give a concrete example of the method of difference.
Answer: To identify the cause of a disease outbreak, a doctor might compare two groups: one exposed to contaminated water (where the disease occurred) and another with clean water (where it did not occur). The difference in water quality points to the cause.
10. Why is habitual action considered an object of moral judgment?
Answer: Habitual actions are considered objects of moral judgment because they reflect a person's character and moral disposition, shaping their consistent behavior over time.
11. What do you mean by 'vera causa'?
Answer: 'Vera causa' refers to a true cause that is capable of producing the observed effect and is supported by evidence and reasoning.
Or
What is 'Working Hypothesis'?
Answer: A working hypothesis is a temporary assumption made to guide investigation and experimentation, which may later be modified or rejected.
12. Give a concrete example of direct variation.
Answer: The cost of fruits varies directly with their weight. For example, if apples cost ₹50 per kilogram, then 2 kg costs ₹100, 3 kg costs ₹150, and so on.
13. What is 'hypothesis concerning law'?
Answer: A hypothesis concerning law is a tentative explanation of a universal principle or natural law, proposed to account for observed phenomena and subject to further testing and validation.
14. What is Induction? State two differences between Induction and Deduction.
Answer:
Induction: Induction is a method of reasoning in which we infer general laws or principles from specific instances or observations. It involves observing particular cases and, based on those, formulating a general rule. For example, after observing that the sun rises in the east every day, we conclude that the sun always rises in the east.
Differences between Induction and Deduction:
Direction of reasoning:
Induction: In induction, reasoning moves from specific observations to general conclusions. For example, observing that multiple metals expand on heating leads to the conclusion that "all metals expand on heating."
Deduction: Deduction works in the opposite direction, moving from general principles to specific conclusions. For instance, from the general statement "all metals expand on heating," we can deduce that "iron will expand when heated."
Certainty of conclusions:
Induction: The conclusions drawn through induction are not absolutely certain; they are probable and depend on further verification. For example, just because we observe 100 swans to be white does not guarantee that all swans are white.
Deduction: The conclusions drawn from deduction are certain if the premises are true. For example, if "all men are mortal" and "Socrates is a man," then we can deduce with certainty that "Socrates is mortal."
Or
State four points of difference between Scientific Induction and Unscientific Induction.
Answer:
Basis of reasoning:
Scientific Induction: It is based on the principle of causation and aims to establish a causal connection between phenomena. For example, understanding that water boils at 100°C due to heat energy.
Unscientific Induction: It is based on mere observation or association of events without identifying a causal relationship. For instance, believing that a black cat crossing the road causes bad luck.
Verification:
Scientific Induction: It involves rigorous testing, observation, and experimentation to verify the generalizations.
Unscientific Induction: There is no proper method of verification, making the conclusions unreliable.
Certainty:
Scientific Induction: The conclusions are reliable and universally applicable, as they are supported by evidence.
Unscientific Induction: The conclusions are often uncertain and sometimes superstitious.
Examples:
Scientific Induction: Laws of motion derived from experiments.
Unscientific Induction: Believing it will rain because clouds look heavy.
15. What do you mean by the doctrine of 'Plurality of Causes'? Why is 'Plurality of Causes' not scientifically acceptable?
Answer:
Doctrine of Plurality of Causes: This doctrine states that a single effect can have multiple causes. For instance, a person catching a fever could be caused by an infection, excessive heat, or an allergic reaction. It emphasizes that the same effect may arise due to different independent causes.
Why 'Plurality of Causes' is not scientifically acceptable:
Science aims to identify specific and definite causal relationships. Plurality of causes can lead to ambiguity and make it difficult to establish precise laws. For example, while a plant’s death might have many potential causes, scientific investigation focuses on identifying the specific factor responsible in a given case.
Or
Mention four characteristics of experiment.
Answer:
Control: Experiments involve controlling variables to isolate the specific factor being studied. For example, when testing the effect of light on plant growth, other factors like water and soil must be kept constant.
Observation: Careful and systematic observation of outcomes is a key feature of experiments. For instance, measuring the exact growth of a plant under varying light conditions.
Reproducibility: A well-designed experiment can be repeated under the same conditions to verify the results. For example, the boiling point of water can be tested repeatedly to confirm it is 100°C at sea level.
Causal inference: Experiments are designed to establish cause-and-effect relationships. For example, by adding fertilizer to one group of plants and not to another, we can determine its impact on growth.
16. Write a brief note on 'Moksa' or 'Liberation' as explained in Indian philosophy.
Answer:
'Moksa' or 'Liberation' is the ultimate goal of human life in Indian philosophy. It signifies freedom from the cycle of birth and death (samsara) and the attainment of eternal bliss and peace. Moksa is considered the highest Purusartha (goal of life), beyond Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth), and Kama (desires).
Different schools of Indian philosophy explain Moksa in their own ways:
Advaita Vedanta: Moksa is achieved through self-realization and understanding that the individual self (Atman) is identical to the ultimate reality (Brahman).
Samkhya and Yoga: Moksa is the separation of Purusha (pure consciousness) from Prakriti (material world) through knowledge and meditation.
Buddhism: Moksa is referred to as Nirvana, the cessation of suffering and desires, leading to liberation.
Jainism: Moksa is freedom from karma, achieved by following the path of right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct.
Or
Explain the concept of 'Dharma' as 'Purusartha'.
Answer:
In Indian philosophy, Dharma is one of the four Purusarthas or goals of human life, the others being Artha (wealth), Kama (desires), and Moksa (liberation). Dharma refers to righteousness, moral duties, and living in harmony with cosmic and social order.
As a moral principle: Dharma guides individuals to perform their duties and obligations according to their position in life (varna and ashrama).
As a cosmic order: Dharma maintains the balance of the universe and upholds societal values.
As a personal duty: It emphasizes ethical behavior, truthfulness, compassion, and self-discipline.
By following Dharma, an individual contributes to personal growth and the welfare of society while progressing toward Moksa.
17. Define Idealism. Name two idealistic philosophers mentioning their theories.
Answer:
Idealism is a philosophical theory that emphasizes the primacy of the mind, consciousness, or ideas over material reality. According to idealism, reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual in nature, and the physical world is either an illusion or dependent on the mind.
Two Idealistic Philosophers:
Plato: He proposed the Theory of Forms, where he argued that the material world is a shadow of the ultimate reality, which consists of eternal and perfect Forms or Ideas.
George Berkeley: He advocated Subjective Idealism, stating that material objects exist only as perceptions in the mind. "To be is to be perceived" (Esse est percipi) is central to his philosophy.
Or
Write a short note on Plato's idealism.
Answer:
Plato's idealism is centered around his Theory of Forms or Ideas, which asserts that true reality exists beyond the physical world. According to Plato:
The physical world is an imperfect and transient reflection of a higher, eternal realm of Forms.
Forms are abstract, unchanging, and perfect entities that exist independently of the material world. For example, the concept of "beauty" or "justice" exists as an ideal Form, and the things we see in the world are mere imitations of these ideals.
Knowledge of the physical world is unreliable, as it is based on perception. True knowledge comes from understanding the eternal Forms through reason and intellect.
Plato explains his theory through the Allegory of the Cave, where prisoners in a cave mistake shadows on the wall for reality, representing how humans perceive the material world.
18. Write any four characteristics of Naive Realism.
Answer:
Direct Perception: Naive realism assumes that we perceive the external world exactly as it is, without any distortion or mediation by the mind.
Independence of Objects: It posits that objects exist independently of whether they are being perceived.
Objective Reality: Naive realism holds that the qualities of objects, such as color, shape, and size, are inherent to the objects themselves.
Uncritical Acceptance: It does not account for perceptual errors, illusions, or the role of subjective factors in perception, treating all perceptions as accurate representations of reality.
19. Mention the names of different kinds of Hypothesis.
Answer: Following are the names of different kinds of Hypothesis.
Descriptive Hypothesis: Focuses on describing a phenomenon or its properties.
Explanatory Hypothesis: Suggests a possible cause or reason for an observed phenomenon.
Working Hypothesis: A provisional assumption made for the purpose of guiding an investigation.
Statistical Hypothesis: A statement about the probability distribution of a data set, used in statistical testing.
Or
What do you mean by 'Crucial Instance'?
Answer:
A Crucial Instance is a decisive observation or experiment that resolves between two competing hypotheses or theories. It provides critical evidence to confirm one hypothesis while refuting the other.
Example: When Galileo dropped two objects of different weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, the observation that they fell at the same rate refuted the Aristotelian view that heavier objects fall faster and supported the Galilean theory of uniform acceleration.
20. State two advantages and two disadvantages of the Method of Difference.
Answer:
Advantages:
Precise Identification of Cause: The method of difference helps identify the specific cause of an effect by isolating variables.
Reliable Results: It provides reliable results when all other conditions are kept constant, making it a powerful tool in experimental science.
Disadvantages:
Control Challenges: It can be difficult to control all variables in complex situations, leading to inaccurate conclusions.
Limited Applicability: The method is not useful when multiple causes are acting simultaneously or when isolating a single cause is impossible.
21. Briefly discuss the nature of Monads as described by Leibnitz.
Answer:
Leibniz’s concept of Monads is central to his metaphysical theory. Monads are simple, indivisible substances that make up the universe. They are spiritual or immaterial entities that do not interact physically but instead reflect the entire universe from their own unique perspective. Key aspects of Monads include:
Simplicity and Indivisibility: Monads are fundamental, indivisible units that cannot be further broken down into smaller components.
Perception and Appetite: Each Monad has perceptions (internal representations of the world) and appetites (the tendency to change or move toward a new state).
No Interaction: Monads do not physically interact with each other but are synchronized by Pre-established Harmony, a divine arrangement by God that ensures the universe runs smoothly without physical causality.
Hierarchy: There is a hierarchy of Monads, with the highest Monads being conscious (e.g., human souls) and lower Monads being unconscious (e.g., inanimate objects).
In this framework, the universe consists of a network of Monads, each reflecting the whole, but none directly influencing one another.
22. Explain the mental stage of a voluntary action.
Answer:
The mental stage of a voluntary action involves a sequence of mental processes that lead to the decision to act, typically beginning with an intention and progressing through various cognitive steps. These stages are:
Perception: The individual perceives an external situation or problem that requires action.
Desire/Want: A desire or want arises, motivating the individual to resolve the situation or achieve a goal.
Deliberation: The person deliberates over the different possible actions, weighing the consequences and determining the most suitable course of action.
Intention: After deliberation, the individual forms a clear intention to act in a certain way.
Decision: The intention is translated into a conscious decision to act, committing the person to carry out the action.
Action: Finally, the decision leads to the physical execution of the voluntary action.
These stages illustrate how mental processes guide an individual’s behavior and lead to purposeful, voluntary actions.
Or
Define Ethics. Why is Ethics called a normative science?
Answer:
Ethics:
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with questions of morality, including concepts of right and wrong, virtue and vice, and moral responsibility. It involves studying human behavior to determine what actions are morally permissible or obligatory.
Why Ethics is called a Normative Science:
Ethics is referred to as a normative science because it provides standards or norms for guiding human conduct. Unlike descriptive sciences, which aim to observe and explain how things are, ethics focuses on how things should be, offering guidelines for moral behavior and decision-making. It establishes what is morally right or wrong, good or bad, based on reasoned principles, societal norms, and moral values.
23. "Religion is the source of morality." Explain the statement.
Answer:
The statement "Religion is the source of morality" suggests that moral values and ethical conduct originate from religious teachings or divine authority. Many religious traditions posit that moral principles are dictated by God or a higher spiritual power. Here's how the statement can be understood:
Divine Command Theory: In some religious frameworks, such as Christianity and Islam, morality is grounded in the commandments or will of God. What is morally right or wrong is determined by adherence to religious laws, such as the Ten Commandments or the teachings of the Quran.
Moral Order and Meaning: Religion provides a comprehensive moral order that guides individuals on how to live ethically. Through concepts like karma in Hinduism and Buddhism, or divine justice in Judaism, religion offers moral frameworks that influence people's behavior.
Moral Accountability: Religion often holds that individuals are accountable to a higher power for their actions, and this divine accountability motivates ethical behavior.
Ethical Teachings: Religious texts, such as the Bible, Quran, and Bhagavad Gita, include moral guidelines on how to treat others, promoting virtues like compassion, justice, and honesty.
In this context, religion offers both a foundation for moral values and a sense of purpose in moral conduct, helping individuals navigate ethical dilemmas. However, critics argue that morality can also be based on reason and secular humanism, independent of religious beliefs.
Or
Write any four characteristics of religion.
Answer:
Belief in the Supernatural: Religion is centered around belief in a higher power or supernatural being, such as God, gods, spirits, or cosmic forces that govern life and the universe.
Sacred Texts and Teachings: Most religions have sacred texts or oral traditions that provide teachings, stories, and principles that guide followers' beliefs and actions. Examples include the Bible, Quran, Bhagavad Gita, and Torah.
Rituals and Worship: Religion often involves rituals, ceremonies, and acts of worship, such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, and festivals, which allow followers to connect with the divine and express devotion.
Moral Code: Religion provides a moral framework, often codified in laws or ethical guidelines, to help followers differentiate between right and wrong and lead virtuous lives. These teachings are meant to guide individuals in their personal conduct and social interactions.
24. Define Unscientific Induction and state its characteristics.
Answer:
Unscientific Induction:
Unscientific induction refers to the process of making generalizations based on insufficient or faulty observations. It involves deriving conclusions from a small, unrepresentative sample or jumping to conclusions without proper verification. Unlike scientific induction, which is systematic and based on evidence, unscientific induction often leads to unreliable or biased conclusions.
Characteristics of Unscientific Induction:
Limited Evidence: Conclusions are based on a small number of observations or incomplete data, which may not accurately represent the entire population or situation.
Lack of Systematic Observation: The process lacks a structured approach or rigorous testing, leading to subjective and inconsistent generalizations.
Overgeneralization: Unscientific induction often involves making sweeping generalizations from a few specific cases, without considering exceptions or alternative explanations.
Confirmation Bias: Individuals may selectively focus on evidence that supports their preconceived notions or beliefs, while ignoring evidence that contradicts them.
Failure to Test Hypotheses: Unlike scientific induction, unscientific induction does not involve testing or verification of hypotheses, making the conclusions less reliable and more prone to error.
Or
Define Analogy with an example. Mention its characteristics.
Answer:
Analogy:
Analogy is a method of reasoning in which one infers that because two things are similar in certain respects, they are likely similar in other aspects as well. Analogies are used to draw comparisons between familiar and unfamiliar concepts to make understanding easier.
Example:
If we say that the human brain is like a computer because both process information and store memories, we are using an analogy. Just as a computer stores and processes data through its hardware and software, the human brain processes information and stores memories using neurons and neural networks.
Characteristics of Analogy:
Similarity of Relations: Analogies depend on the similarity between two situations or objects in certain respects, which are used to draw conclusions about their relationship in other respects.
Limited Comparison: Analogies are based on limited comparisons, meaning that while the things compared are similar in one or more aspects, they may not be entirely the same in all respects.
Strength of Analogy: The strength of an analogy depends on the degree of similarity between the two objects or situations being compared. The more similar they are, the stronger the analogy.
Inferential: Analogies allow us to infer unknown properties of one object or situation based on what is known about another, helping to make decisions or understand complex ideas.
Risk of False Conclusions: While analogies are helpful, they can lead to false conclusions if the similarities between the two objects are not strong or relevant enough to make the comparison valid.
25. Explain the principle of Uniformity of Nature. Why is it called the formal ground of Induction?
Answer:
Principle of Uniformity of Nature:
The principle of uniformity of nature states that the laws of nature are consistent and unchanging across time and space. This means that the patterns and regularities we observe in the natural world will continue to hold in the future and in different places, provided similar conditions exist. It assumes that nature behaves in a uniform and predictable way, which allows us to generalize from past experiences to future events.
Why it is called the formal ground of Induction:
The principle of uniformity of nature is considered the formal ground of induction because it justifies the inductive process. Inductive reasoning relies on the assumption that the future will resemble the past, and that the patterns observed in one context will apply to others. Without this assumption, we would not be able to make valid inferences from specific observations to general laws or predictions. Essentially, it underpins the very process of induction by providing the rationale that nature behaves consistently, allowing for the generalization of observed phenomena.
Or
What is Experiment? Describe the characteristics of Experiment. 1+5=6
Ans:- An experiment is a scientific procedure undertaken to test a hypothesis, observe an effect, or demonstrate a known fact. It involves manipulating one or more variables to determine the relationship between cause and effect. In a controlled environment, variables are systematically altered, and the outcomes are carefully measured to draw conclusions. Experiments are fundamental to scientific research as they help in the validation or falsification of hypotheses.
Characteristics of Experiment:
- Controlled Environment: An experiment is conducted in a controlled setting where variables that could influence the outcome are kept constant, except for the one being tested. This ensures that any changes in the outcome are due to the manipulated variable alone.Example: In a plant growth experiment, the amount of water and type of soil are kept constant while the amount of light is varied.
- Manipulation of Variables: In an experiment, researchers deliberately manipulate one or more independent variables (factors that can be controlled) to observe their effect on the dependent variable (the outcome being measured).Example: Varying the amount of sunlight is the manipulated variable, and plant growth is the dependent variable.
- Replication: For results to be reliable, experiments should be replicable. This means that the experiment can be repeated by other researchers, under the same conditions, to verify or falsify the results.Example: An experiment to test the effect of temperature on enzyme activity should be repeatable by different researchers to confirm the findings.
- Control Group: In many experiments, a control group is used for comparison. This group does not receive the experimental treatment and serves as a baseline to compare the effects of the manipulated variable.Example: In a drug trial, one group may receive the actual drug, and another group receives a placebo.
- Objective Measurement and Data Collection: Experiments rely on quantitative or qualitative data that can be measured and analyzed. This ensures that the results are objective and not influenced by personal biases.Example: The height of plants in an experiment is measured in centimeters, providing numerical data to analyze the effect of sunlight on growth.
26. What are the conditions of a valid hypothesis? Explain any two of them.
Answer:
A valid hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested and potentially falsified. For a hypothesis to be valid, it must meet certain conditions:
- Clarity and Specificity: A valid hypothesis must be clearly stated and specific in its prediction. It should not be vague or ambiguous but rather offer a precise statement that can be tested through experimentation or observation.Example: Instead of saying "Plants grow better in light," a more specific hypothesis would be "Plants exposed to 12 hours of light each day grow taller than plants exposed to 6 hours of light daily."
- Testability: A valid hypothesis must be testable through empirical observation or experimentation. It should lead to predictions that can be confirmed or refuted by gathering data.Example: A hypothesis like "All metals expand when heated" is testable because one can heat different metals and measure their expansion to confirm the hypothesis.
- Falsifiability: A valid hypothesis should be falsifiable, meaning there must be a possibility of it being proven false through evidence or observation.Example: "Water boils at 100°C at sea level" is falsifiable because experiments can be conducted to determine whether the temperature is different under various conditions.
Relevance: The hypothesis must be relevant to the problem being investigated. It should directly address the issue under study and be logically connected to the research question.
Simplicity (Occam's Razor): A valid hypothesis should be as simple as possible while still explaining the phenomenon. If multiple hypotheses can explain the same observation, the simplest one should be preferred.
Or
What are the stages of hypothesis? Explain with examples.
Answer:
The stages of a hypothesis typically involve the following steps:
- Observation: The first stage is observation, where an individual notices a phenomenon or pattern that prompts the formulation of a hypothesis.Example: A student notices that plants seem to grow better near windows where there is more sunlight.
- Questioning: The observation leads to a question, which the hypothesis aims to answer.Example: The student may ask, "Do plants grow better with more sunlight?"
- Formulation of Hypothesis: Based on the observations and questions, a hypothesis is formulated as a testable statement.Example: "Plants that receive more sunlight will grow taller than those that receive less sunlight."
- Testing/Experimentation: The hypothesis is tested through controlled experiments or observation to gather data and evaluate the validity of the hypothesis.Example: The student conducts an experiment with two groups of plants, one with 6 hours of sunlight and the other with 12 hours, measuring their growth.
- Analysis and Conclusion: After testing, the results are analyzed to determine whether they support or contradict the hypothesis.Example: If the plants exposed to 12 hours of sunlight grow taller, the hypothesis is supported. If not, it may be rejected or modified.
27. Explain the Method of Agreement with concrete examples.
Answer:
The Method of Agreement is a logical approach used to identify a cause for a phenomenon by finding a common factor across different instances where the effect occurs. According to this method, if two or more instances of the occurrence of an effect share a common factor, that factor is likely to be the cause of the effect.
Example:
Suppose a researcher is investigating the cause of a specific disease outbreak in a town. The researcher observes the following:
Case 1: Person A, who ate at Restaurant X, got sick.
Case 2: Person B, who also ate at Restaurant X, got sick.
Case 3: Person C, who ate at Restaurant X, got sick.
Case 4: Person D, who did not eat at Restaurant X, did not get sick.
In this case, the common factor among those who fell ill is the consumption of food at Restaurant X. According to the method of agreement, the food at the restaurant is the likely cause of the disease outbreak, as it is the only common factor among all the sick individuals.
This method helps researchers identify potential causes by focusing on shared attributes across instances where the effect is observed. However, it is important to confirm the identified cause through further investigation and testing to rule out other possible causes.
Or
Define the Joint Method of Agreement and Difference with an example. State two advantages of this method. 2+2+2=6
Answer:
The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference is a combination of two methods used in scientific investigation to identify the cause of a phenomenon. This method involves analyzing cases where both the Method of Agreement and Method of Difference can be applied together to determine the cause of an event.
Method of Agreement: It looks for a common factor that is present in all instances where a phenomenon occurs.
Method of Difference: It compares instances where the phenomenon occurs with instances where it does not occur to identify the factor that differentiates the two.
When used together, these methods provide stronger evidence for the cause of the phenomenon by considering both what is common and what is different in the instances being studied.
Example:
Imagine we are studying why a certain group of people fell ill after attending various parties.
Method of Agreement: we find that all the sick people attended the same party, so the common factor is attendance at that particular party.
Method of Difference: we then compare the sick people with those who did not fall ill. We discover that the sick individuals ate food prepared by the same caterer, while those who did not get sick ate food from a different source.
By using the Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, we conclude that the cause of the illness was likely the food prepared by that particular caterer, as it is both common to the sick people (agreement) and absent in the cases of the healthy individuals (difference).
Following are two advantages of Joint Method.
Increased Reliability: By combining both the Method of Agreement and Method of Difference, the Joint Method helps in strengthening the conclusion, providing more evidence and reducing the chance of errors or biases in the investigation. It allows for a more robust analysis of cause and effect.
Comprehensive Analysis: This method allows researchers to examine both commonalities and differences between cases, making it a thorough approach to identifying causality. It can help eliminate factors that might seem relevant but do not actually contribute to the phenomenon being studied.
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