Assam Board Class 11 Logic and Philosophy – Unit 7: Theory of Knowledge, Pramanas MCQs and Complete Solution
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Unit-7 (Marks: 10)
Chapter-1: Theories of the Origin of Knowledge
Short and Long Questions from the Last 7 Years
Explain empiricism as a theory of the origin of knowledge.
(5 marks, 2013) ✅Explain rationalism as a theory of the origin of knowledge.
(5 marks, 2013) ✅According to rationalism, _______ is the source of knowledge. (Fill in the blank)
(1 mark, 2014) ✅Write three names of modern rationalists.
(3 marks, 2014) ✅Which of the following groups of philosophers is a group of empiricists?
(1 mark, 2015) ✅I. Descartes, Spinoza, Locke
II. Locke, Leibnitz, Hume
III. Locke, Spinoza, Wolf
IV. Locke, Hume, Berkeley
Who held the mind or the soul as 'Monad'?
(1 mark, 2015) ✅What do you mean by adventitious idea? Give an example.
(2 marks, 2015) ✅What is rationalism? Briefly express four points of criticism against rationalism.
(2+4 = 6 marks, 2015, 2018) ✅What is empiricism? Briefly express four points of criticism against empiricism.
(6 marks, 2015) ✅Name the theory of the origin of knowledge with which the statement 'Esse est percipi' is connected.
(1 mark, 2016) ✅Which of the following philosophers is an empiricist?
(Descartes, Leibnitz, Spinoza, Hume)Who regarded the mind as a 'clean slate'?
Who refuted the theory of innate ideas?
Briefly explain how Locke refuted Descartes' innate ideas.
(4 marks, 2016, 2017) ✅State four characteristics of empiricism.
(4 marks, 2016, 2017) ✅State four characteristics of rationalism.
(4 marks, 2016) ✅Which of the following groups of philosophers is a group of rationalists?
(1 mark, 2017, 2018) ✅a. Descartes, Hume, Spinoza
b. Plato, Spinoza, Leibnitz
c. Hume, Locke, Berkeley
d. Descartes, Spinoza, Locke
What is empiricism? Mention four characteristics of empiricism.
(2+4 = 6 marks, 2018) ✅
MCQs
1. _____________ is knowledge of classification, principles, models or structures pertinent to a particular disciplinary area.
(i) Procedural knowledge.
(ii) Metacognitive knowledge.
(iii) Conceptual knowledge.
(iv) Factual knowledge.
Ans: (iii) Conceptual knowledge.
2. According to ______________, the father of modern philosophy, reason is the source of true knowledge. His aim was to find clear and certain knowledge.
(i) Socrates.
(ii) Adventitious.
(iii) Descartes.
(iv) innate.
Ans: (iii) Descartes.
3. Descartes divided into _____________ categories:
(i) 2
(ii) 4
(iii) 3
(iv) 5
Ans: (iii) 3
4. Who criticised the doctrine of innate ideas and argued that knowledge comes only from sense experience?
(i) Descartes.
(ii) Leibniz.
(iii) Locke.
(iv) Spinoza.
Ans: (iii) Locke.
5. According to empiricism, knowledge is:
(i) A priori.
(ii) A posteriori.
(iii) Universal.
(iv) Inherited.
Ans: (ii) A posteriori.
6. According to rationalists, the source of knowledge is:
(i) Sense experience.
(ii) Reason.
(iii) Reflection.
(iv) Imagination.
Ans: (ii) Reason.
7. ____________ followed the footsteps of Descartes and held that all knowledge originates in reason.
(i) Experience.
(ii) Spinoza.
(iii) Reflection.
(iv) Substance.
Ans: (ii) Spinoza.
8. What is the concept of the mind at birth, according to Locke?
(i) A blank slate.
(ii) Pre-existing knowledge.
(iii) A divine creation.
(iv) All of the above.
Ans: (i) A blank slate.
9. ____________ holds that soul which is a monad or a spiritual substance evolves all knowledge from within itself.
(i) Spinoza.
(ii) Leibnitz.
(iii) Adventitious.
(iv) Experience.
Ans: (ii) Leibnitz.
10. What is the theory that states “There is nothing in the intellect that was not first in the sense”?
(i) Rationalism.
(ii) Empiricism.
(iii) Scepticism.
(iv) Idealism.
Ans: (ii) Empiricism.
11. The ideas which are imprinted on the mind by God at the time of birth are called ____________.
(i) Rationalism.
(ii) Leibnitz.
(iii) Innate ideas.
(iv) Descartes.
Ans: (iii) Innate ideas.
12. According to Hume, knowledge is composed of:
(i) Impressions and ideas.
(ii) Reason and logic.
(iii) Sense experience and reflection.
(iv) Universal truths.
Ans: (i) Impressions and ideas.
13. According to _____________ all our knowledge is derived from sense experience?
(i) Rationalism.
(ii) Association.
(iii) Empiricism.
(iv) Spinoza.
Ans: (iii) Empiricism.
14. What criticism is levelled against empiricism regarding its reliance on:
(i) Reason alone.
(ii) Sensory experience.
(iii) Abstract concepts.
(iv) Metaphysical speculation.
Ans: (ii) Sensory experience.
15. According to _____________ mind is passive in receiving sensations.
(i) Metaphysical speculation.
(ii) Empiricism.
(iii) Locke.
(iv) None of the above.
Ans: (iii) Locke.
Marks: 1 (Short Answer Questions)
Which of the following groups of philosophers is a group of rationalists?
(1 mark, 2018) ✅
(a) Descartes, Hume, Spinoza
(b) Plato, Spinoza, Leibnitz
(c) Hume, Locke, Berkeley
(d) Descartes, Spinoza, Locke
Ans: (b) Plato, Spinoza, LeibnitzWhich of the following philosophers is an empiricist?
(1 mark, 2017) ✅
Options: Descartes, Leibnitz, Spinoza, Hume
Ans: HumeWho regarded the mind as a 'clean slate'?
(1 mark, 2017) ✅
Ans: LockeWho refuted the theory of innate ideas?
(1 mark, 2017) ✅
Ans: LockeWho held the mind or the soul as 'Monad'?
(1 mark, 2015) ✅
Ans: LeibnitzName the theory of the origin of knowledge with which the statement 'Esse est percipi' is connected.
(1 mark)
Ans: Subjective IdealismWhich of the following groups of philosophers is a group of empiricists?
(1 mark, 2015) ✅
(a) Descartes, Spinoza, Locke
(b) Locke, Leibnitz, Hume
(c) Locke, Spinoza, Wolf
(d) Locke, Hume, Berkeley
Ans: (d) Locke, Hume, BerkeleyAccording to which theory is intellect or reason the only source of knowledge?
Ans: RationalismIs Descartes a rationalist?
Ans: Yes, he is.'There is nothing in the intellect which was not previously in the sense' - With which theory is this statement related?
(1 mark)
Ans: EmpiricismWho is the philosopher related to the statement 'There is nothing in the intellect which was not previously in the sense'?
(1 mark)
Ans: John LockeAccording to rationalism, 'Human knowledge is not a priori but a posteriori' - Is it true?
(1 mark)
Ans: No, false.At the time of birth, our mind is like a 'tabula rasa' or a clean slate. Which theory holds this view?
(1 mark)
Ans: EmpiricismWho made the statement 'At the time of birth our mind is like a tabula rasa'?
(1 mark)
Ans: John LockeName three rationalist philosophers.
(1 mark)
Ans: Descartes, Leibnitz, SpinozaAre innate ideas achieved through experience?
Ans: NoWhich philosopher introduced the concept of 'windowless monads' in rationalism?
(1 mark)
Ans: LeibnitzWhich philosopher is associated with the statement 'Esse est percipi'?
(1 mark)
Ans: BerkeleyWrite the name of a rationalist philosopher.
(1 mark)
Ans: DescartesWhat type of idealism did Hegel support?
(1 mark)
Ans: Objective IdealismIs Berkeley's idealism subjective or objective?
(1 mark)
Ans: SubjectiveWhich philosopher distinguished between primary and secondary qualities?
(1 mark)
Ans: John LockeWho is the propounder of Subjective Idealism?
(1 mark)
Ans: George BerkeleyWho is the main exponent of empiricism?
(1 mark)
Ans: John Locke
Marks: 2 (Short Answer Questions)
What do you mean by adventitious ideas? Give an example.
(2 marks, 2015) ✅
Ans: Those ideas which enter the mind from the experience of external objects are called adventitious ideas.
Example: Ideas of trees, flowers, etc.Define Rationalism.
(2 marks)
Ans: The epistemological theory according to which reason is the main source of knowledge is called rationalism.Define Empiricism.
(2 marks)
Ans: According to empiricism, all our knowledge is derived from sense experience.What do you mean by innate ideas?
(2 marks)
Ans: The ideas which are imprinted on the mind by God at the time of birth are called innate ideas.Define a posteriori knowledge.
(2 marks)
Ans: The knowledge which is achieved through sense experience is called a posteriori knowledge.Define a priori knowledge.
(2 marks)
Ans: The knowledge which is achieved by the mind before any experience is called a priori knowledge.What is Monad?
(2 marks)
Ans: According to Leibnitz, the substances which are independent, conscious, self-existent, and windowless are called monads.What do you mean by factitious ideas?
(2 marks)
Ans: The ideas created by the mind through imagination by the conjunction of ideas are called factitious (or fictitious) ideas.'Mind is a tabula rasa' – Who said this? With which theory is this statement related?
(2 marks)
Ans: Locke said this. This statement is related to empiricism.Name two modern rationalist thinkers.
(2 marks)
Ans: Leibnitz and Descartes.Give two examples of innate ideas.
(2 marks)
Ans: God and Soul.Name the philosopher who said substance is Monad. With which theory is the concept of Monad related?
(2 marks)
Ans: Leibnitz said this. The concept of Monad is related to rationalism.Name two Greek rationalist thinkers.
(2 marks)
Ans: Plato and Socrates.Mention two empiricist philosophers.
(2 marks)
Ans: Hume and Locke.State two theories of the origin of knowledge.
(2 marks)
Ans: Empiricism and Rationalism.Name the philosopher who introduced the concept of innate ideas. With which theory are innate ideas related?
(2 marks)
Ans: Descartes introduced this concept. It is associated with rationalism.Mention one argument put forward by Locke to refute innate ideas.
(2 marks)
Ans: If there were innate ideas in the mind, they would be the same in all minds. But the so-called innate ideas are different in different people at different stages.
Marks: 4 (Expanded Answers)
1. State four characteristics of empiricism. (4 marks, 2016, 2017) ✅
Ans: Empiricism is the epistemological theory that asserts that all knowledge is derived from sense experience. The key characteristics of empiricism are:
Experience as the Source of Knowledge: Empiricists believe that perception or experience is the only way to attain knowledge. There are no innate ideas; instead, all ideas come from sensory experiences.
Inductive Method: Empiricism primarily uses the inductive method, which means drawing general conclusions from specific observations. This contrasts with the rationalist deductive method.
Novelty in Knowledge: Since knowledge comes from experience, there is always scope for new learning. As experiences change, knowledge evolves, making it flexible and progressive.
A Posteriori Nature of Knowledge: Empiricism holds that knowledge is not a priori (independent of experience) but a posteriori (gained through experience).
2. State four characteristics of Rationalism.
(4 marks, 2016) ✅
Ans: Rationalism is the philosophical theory that reason is the fundamental source of all knowledge. The main characteristics of rationalism are:
Reason as the Source of Knowledge: Rationalists argue that reason, rather than experience, is the primary source of knowledge. Truths can be discovered through logical deduction.
Use of Mathematics in Knowledge: Rationalists often rely on mathematical principles, as they are seen as clear, certain, and absolute. Mathematical reasoning is a model for rational thought.
Innate Ideas: According to rationalism, some ideas are inherent in the human mind at birth and do not come from experience. For example, the concept of God, causality, and infinity.
Mind as Naturally Rational: Rationalists believe that reason is a natural characteristic of the human mind, allowing individuals to grasp fundamental truths without relying on sensory input.
3. Briefly explain how Locke refuted Descartes' innate ideas. (4 marks, 2017) ✅
Ans: John Locke strongly opposed Descartes' theory of innate ideas and argued that all knowledge comes from experience. His key arguments against innate ideas are:
Lack of Universality: If innate ideas existed, they would be present in all minds universally. However, not all people share the same ideas, proving that ideas are acquired rather than inborn.
Variations in Thought: If ideas were innate, they would be the same for everyone. But different people and cultures have different beliefs, which suggests that knowledge is learned, not inborn.
No Proof of Innateness: There is no clear evidence to support the claim that ideas are pre-existing in the mind. Many ideas once thought to be innate are actually acquired through experience.
Experience as the True Source of Knowledge: Locke argued that all ideas come from experience—either sensation (external experience) or reflection (internal experience). There is no need to assume innate ideas.
4. Define Adventitious and Fictitious ideas with examples. (4 marks)
Ans:
Adventitious Ideas: These are ideas that enter the mind through direct experience with external objects. They are not created by the mind but arise from sensory perception.
Example: The idea of trees, flowers, mountains, or any object we see in the world.Fictitious Ideas: These are ideas created by the imagination, where the mind combines different ideas to form something that does not exist in reality.
Example: A golden hill or a flying horse—these do not exist but are created by the imagination.
5. How many kinds of ideas are there according to Descartes? What are they? (4 marks)
Ans: According to Descartes, there are three kinds of ideas:
Innate Ideas: These are ideas present in the mind from birth, such as the ideas of God, infinity, and substance.
Adventitious Ideas: These come from external experiences, such as the idea of a tree or a book.
Fictitious Ideas: These are created by the imagination, like the idea of a unicorn or a talking animal.
6. What are the different theories of the origin of knowledge? What is empiricism? Who introduced this theory in philosophy? (4 marks)
Ans: The two major theories of the origin of knowledge are:
Empiricism: This theory states that all knowledge comes from sense experience. Empiricists reject the idea of innate knowledge and emphasize observation and experimentation.
Introduced by: John Locke
Rationalism: This theory holds that reason is the main source of knowledge, and some ideas exist independently of experience.
Empiricism was first introduced by John Locke in Western philosophy. He argued that the mind is like a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) at birth and knowledge is gained only through experience.
7. What are the different theories of knowledge? What is Rationalism? Who introduced this theory in philosophy? (4 marks)
Ans: The two primary theories of knowledge are:
Empiricism: Knowledge comes from experience and sensory perception.
Rationalism: Knowledge is derived from reason, and some truths exist independent of experience.
Rationalism is the theory that reason alone is the primary source of true knowledge. Rationalists believe in innate ideas and emphasize logical reasoning.
Introduced by: René Descartes, who is considered the father of modern rationalism.
8. Define Descartes' theory of innate ideas with examples. (4 marks)
Ans: According to Descartes, innate ideas are ideas that are present in the human mind from birth and do not come from experience. These ideas are implanted in the mind by God.
Examples of innate ideas:
Idea of God: The concept of a perfect and infinite being.
Idea of Causality: The belief that everything has a cause.
Idea of Infinity: The understanding of something beyond limits.
Descartes argued that these ideas are not learned through experience but are part of human nature.
9. Why is Descartes called the Father of Modern Western Philosophy? (4 marks)
Ans: René Descartes is called the "Father of Modern Western Philosophy" because of his groundbreaking contributions to philosophical thought. The key reasons include:
Introduction of Reason as the Basis of Knowledge: Descartes emphasized rationalism, arguing that true knowledge is discovered through reason rather than sensory experience.
Clear and Certain Knowledge: His method was based on systematic doubt, ensuring that knowledge is built on firm foundations.
Use of the Mathematical Method in Philosophy: He applied mathematical precision to philosophy, which led to clear and logical reasoning.
Development of Rationalism: Descartes' theory of rationalism laid the foundation for modern Western philosophy.
Because of these reasons, he is regarded as the Father of Modern Philosophy.
10. What are the branches of philosophy? State the different theories of the origin of knowledge.
(4 marks)
Ans: The main branches of philosophy are:
Epistemology: The study of knowledge.
Metaphysics: The study of existence and reality.
Axiology: The study of values, including ethics and aesthetics.
The two main theories of the origin of knowledge are:
Rationalism: Reason is the main source of knowledge.
Empiricism: Experience is the source of all knowledge.
Criticism: A combination of both rationalism and empiricism.
Marks: 6 (Expanded Answers)
1. What is Empiricism? Briefly express four points of criticism against empiricism. (6 marks, 2015) ✅
Empiricism:
Empiricism is the theory of knowledge which states that all knowledge originates from sense experience. It denies the existence of innate ideas and emphasizes that human understanding is formed through observation, perception, and experience. Philosophers like John Locke, David Hume, and George Berkeley are considered major proponents of empiricism.
Criticism against Empiricism:
Despite its strong emphasis on experience, empiricism faces several criticisms:
One-Sided and Dogmatic:
Empiricism is one-sided because it considers only sense experience as the source of knowledge, completely ignoring the role of reason. This limits its scope.
Narrow Definition of Experience:
Empiricists define "experience" as only sense perception, but human experience also includes intuition, memory, and emotions, which are not adequately accounted for in empiricism.
Fails to Explain Self-Knowledge:
Empiricism struggles to explain self-awareness and introspection. The concept of "self" is not something we observe through the senses, yet we have knowledge of it.
Lacks Universal and Necessary Truths:
Empiricism does not provide knowledge that is universal and necessary. Mathematical truths, such as 2 + 2 = 4, are not learned through experience but through reasoning, proving that knowledge is not always based on sensory perception.
2. What is Rationalism? Briefly express four points of criticism against rationalism. (6 marks, 2015, 2018) ✅
Rationalism:
Rationalism is the epistemological theory that states reason is the only source of true knowledge. Rationalists argue that some knowledge is innate and does not come from experience. René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz are the main proponents of rationalism.
Criticism against Rationalism:
One-Sided and Dogmatic:
Rationalism focuses only on reason and ignores sense experience, making it one-sided like empiricism. However, in real life, we gain knowledge both through reasoning and experience.
Problem with Innate Ideas:
Rationalists claim that some ideas are innate, but Locke refuted this, arguing that if ideas were truly innate, everyone should have them from birth, which is not the case.
Fails to Explain New Knowledge:
Rationalism cannot explain the discovery of new knowledge. If knowledge were only based on reason, new scientific discoveries (like gravity or evolution) would not require observation. But in reality, they are found through experience and experimentation.
Innate Ideas are Based on Experience:
Many so-called innate ideas (like the idea of causality or time) are actually derived from experience. For example, we understand cause and effect by observing events in nature, not by having an inborn idea of it.
3. What is Empiricism? Mention four features or characteristics of empiricism. (2+4 = 6 marks, 2018) ✅
Empiricism:
Empiricism is the theory that states all knowledge comes from sensory experience. It denies the concept of innate ideas and claims that the human mind is a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) at birth.
Features/Characteristics of Empiricism:
Knowledge is Gained Through Experience:
Empiricism holds that perception and experience are the only sources of knowledge. No knowledge is inborn; all knowledge comes from what we see, hear, touch, taste, and smell.
Use of the Inductive Method:
Empiricists use inductive reasoning, meaning they form general conclusions from specific observations. For example, after seeing many swans and noticing they are white, one may conclude that "all swans are white."
Knowledge is Dynamic and Evolving:
Since experience is ever-changing, knowledge is also flexible and progressive. New discoveries and experiences modify or expand previous knowledge.
A Posteriori Knowledge:
Empiricists argue that knowledge is not a priori (independent of experience) but a posteriori, meaning it depends on empirical evidence.
4. What is Rationalism? Mention four features of rationalism. (2+4 = 6 marks) ✅
Rationalism:
Rationalism is the theory that states reason is the fundamental source of knowledge. Rationalists believe that certain truths are innate and do not require experience to be understood.
Features/Characteristics of Rationalism:
Reason as the Source of Knowledge:
Rationalists believe that true knowledge comes from reason, not experience. Mathematics and logic are seen as the most reliable ways to gain knowledge.
Mathematical and Logical Certainty:
Rationalism favors mathematical reasoning because it provides clear, universal, and absolute truths. Example: 2 + 2 = 4 is true regardless of experience.
Innate Ideas:
Rationalists claim that the human mind is born with some knowledge already present, such as the concept of God, infinity, and morality.
A Priori Knowledge:
Rationalists believe in a priori knowledge, meaning some knowledge exists independent of experience. For example, we do not need to see a perfect circle to understand what a circle is.
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Unit-7
Chapter-2: Pramāna – Pratyakṣa and Anumāna
(Past 10 Years Exam Questions)
Marks: 1
How many pramāṇas are accepted in Indian philosophy? (1 mark, 2016) ✅
How many pramāṇas are accepted in the Nyāya system? (1 mark, 2017) ✅
Which of the following statement is NOT correct? (1 mark, 2018) ✅
(i) Knowledge by internal perception is immediate knowledge.
(ii) Knowledge by testimony is mediate knowledge.
(iii) Knowledge by inference is not mediate knowledge.
(iv) Knowledge by external perception is not mediate knowledge.
Marks: 2
Distinguish between Svārthānumāna and Parārthānumāna. (2 mark, 2013) ✅
Marks: 3
Name three 'pramāṇa' or the ways of knowing recognized in Indian philosophy. (3 mark, 2011) ✅
Marks: 5
State the difference between ordinary and extraordinary perception. (5 mark, 2014) ✅
(Past 10 Years Exam Questions & Answers)
Marks: 1
Which of the following statements is NOT correct? (1 mark, 2018) ✅
(i) Knowledge by internal perception is immediate knowledge.
(ii) Knowledge by testimony is mediate knowledge.
(iii) Knowledge by inference is not mediate knowledge.
(iv) Knowledge by external perception is not mediate knowledge.
Ans: (iii) Knowledge by inference is not mediate knowledge.How many pramāṇas are accepted in the Nyāya system? (1 mark, 2017) ✅
Ans: Four (4).How many pramāṇas are accepted in Indian philosophy? (1 mark, 2016) ✅
Ans: Six (6).What is called valid knowledge in Indian philosophy?
Ans: Pramā.What is called the source of valid knowledge in Indian philosophy?
Ans: Pramāṇa.How many kinds of Pramā are there in Indian philosophy?
Ans: Six.What is the valid source of knowledge according to Cārvāka philosophy?
Ans: Perception (Pratyakṣa).What is the logical ground of inference according to Nyāya?
Ans: Vyāpti.How many kinds of ordinary perception (Laukika Pratyakṣa) are there in Nyāya philosophy?
Ans: Three.How many kinds of Alaukika Pratyakṣa are there in Nyāya philosophy?
Ans: Three.How many kinds of judgment are there in Svārthānumāna?
Ans: Three.How many kinds of judgment are there in Parārthānumāna?
Ans: Five.How many kinds of inference are there according to purpose in Nyāya philosophy?
Ans: Two.How many kinds of inference are there according to Vyāpti relation in Nyāya?
Ans: Three.Is perception an independent source of knowledge?
Ans: Yes.Does Cārvāka accept inference as a valid source of knowledge?
Ans: No.Can Yogaja Pratyakṣa be achieved by any person?
Ans: No.In Nirvikalpa Pratyakṣa, we have knowledge of something without any name and quality of it—is it true?
Ans: Yes, it is true.In Śeṣavat inference, we infer an unperceived cause from the perception of a perceived effect—is it true?
Ans: True.What is the inference that is used to prove something called?
Ans: It is called Pramāṇa (valid means of knowledge).
Questions and Answers Marks: 2/3
Distinguish between ordinary and extraordinary perception. (2 marks, 2013)✅
OR
Distinguish between Laukika and Alaukika perception.
Ans:
(i) In Laukika Pratyakṣa (ordinary perception), we know the object by the direct contact of the sense organ and the object. In Alaukika Pratyakṣa (extraordinary perception), there is an extraordinary relation between the sense organ and the object.
(ii) In ordinary perception, we have knowledge of a particular object, but in extraordinary perception, we have knowledge of another object through an indirect relation.What is Pramā? (2 marks)✅
Ans: In Indian philosophy, true cognition that is free from doubt and error is called Pramā (valid knowledge).What is Pramāṇa? (2 marks)✅
Ans: The means by which true cognition or valid knowledge is attained is called Pramāṇa.Define Laukika Pratyakṣa. (2 marks)✅
Ans: According to Indian philosophy, when the sense organs come into contact with an object in a normal or direct way, it is called Laukika Pratyakṣa (ordinary perception).What is Pratyakṣa? (2 marks)✅
Ans: According to Nyāya, knowledge that arises by direct contact of a sense organ with an object is called Pratyakṣa (perception).Define Alaukika Pratyakṣa. (2 marks)✅
Ans: A perception is defined as extraordinary perception (Alaukika Pratyakṣa) when no ordinary relation is possible between the sense organ and the object.What is Anumāna (Inference)? (2 marks)✅
Ans: According to Nyāya, Anumāna is knowledge that is derived on the basis of perception. It is a mediate knowledge that presupposes another piece of knowledge.Define Savikalpa Pratyakṣa. (2 marks)✅
Ans: A kind of perception in which the object is perceived with its qualities and relations is called Savikalpa Pratyakṣa (determinate perception).Define Svārthānumāna. (2 marks)✅
Ans: A kind of inference that is made for one's own knowledge is called Svārthānumāna.What is Parārthānumāna? (2 marks)✅
Ans: A kind of inference that is intended to demonstrate the truth to others is called Parārthānumāna.What is Pūrvavat Anumāna? (2 marks)✅
Ans: When we infer an unperceived effect from a perceived cause, it is called Pūrvavat Anumāna.Define Sāmānyatodṛṣṭa Anumāna. (2 marks)✅
Ans: Sāmānyatodṛṣṭa Anumāna is an inference where the conclusion is drawn not on the basis of causality but on uniformity of co-existence.Define Śeṣavat Anumāna. (2 marks)✅
Ans: When we infer an unperceived cause from a perceived effect, it is called Śeṣavat Anumāna.Define Kevala Vyatireki Anumāna. (2 marks)✅
Ans: An inference in which the Hetu (middle term) is negatively related to the Sādhya (major term) is called Kevala Vyatireki Anumāna.What do you mean by Vyāpti? (2 marks)✅
Ans: The invariable and universal relation between the middle term (Hetu) and the major term (Sādhya) is called Vyāpti.Distinguish between Svārthānumāna and Parārthānumāna. (2 marks)✅
Ans:
(i) In Svārthānumāna, inference is made for one's own knowledge, while in Parārthānumāna, inference is used to convince others.
(ii) Svārthānumāna consists of three parts: Vyāpti, Pratijñā, and Nigamana. Parārthānumāna consists of five parts: Pratijñā, Hetu, Udāharaṇa, Upanaya, and Nigamana.Name three Pramāṇas (ways of knowing) recognized in Indian philosophy. (3 marks, 2011)✅
Ans:
(a) Pratyakṣa (Perception)
(b) Anumāna (Inference)
(c) Upamāna (Comparison)Give an example of Pramāṇa. (3 marks)✅
Ans: Pratyakṣa, Anumāna, Śabda, Upamāna, etc.Give an example of Parārthānumāna. (3 marks)✅
Ans:
(a) The hill has fire (Pratijñā).
(b) Because it has smoke (Hetu).
(c) Wherever there is smoke, there is fire (Udāharaṇa).
(d) This hill has smoke (Upanaya).
(e) Therefore, the hill has fire (Nigamana).Give an example of Kevalānvayi Anumāna. (3 marks)✅
Ans:
(a) All knowable objects are nameable.
(b) The table is a knowable object.
(c) Therefore, the table is a nameable object.What is Pramā? How many kinds of Pramā are accepted in Indian philosophy? (3 marks)✅
Ans: Pramā is valid knowledge that is free from doubt and error. Indian philosophy accepts six kinds of Pramā.What is Pramāṇa? How many kinds of Pramāṇa are there in Indian philosophy? (3 marks)✅
Ans: Pramāṇa is the means by which true cognition or valid knowledge is achieved. Indian philosophy accepts six Pramāṇas.How many kinds of Alaukika Pratyakṣa are there in Indian philosophy? State them. (3 marks)✅
Ans: There are three kinds of Alaukika Pratyakṣa:
(a) Jñānalakṣaṇa Pratyakṣa
(b) Sāmānyalakṣaṇa Pratyakṣa
(c) Yogaja PratyakṣaWhat is Anumāna? Give an example. (3 marks)✅
Ans: Anumāna is mediate knowledge that is derived on the basis of another knowledge.
Example:
(a) The hill has fire.
(b) Because the hill has smoke.
(c) Wherever there is smoke, there is fire.Define Anvayi Vyatireki Anumāna with an example. (3 marks)✅
Ans: An inference in which the Hetu (middle term) is related to the Sādhya (major term) both positively and negatively is called Anvayi Vyatireki Anumāna.
Example:
(a) All things that have smoke have fire.
(b) The hill has smoke.
(c) Therefore, the hill has fire.
(d) No thing that has no fire has smoke.
(e) The hill has smoke.
(f) Therefore, the hill has fire.
Question and Answer (6 marks)✅
Ans:
Perception is classified into two types in Indian philosophy: Ordinary perception (Laukika Pratyakṣa) and Extraordinary perception (Alaukika Pratyakṣa). The key differences are as follows:
2. State the difference between Svārthānumāna and Parārthānumāna. (6 marks)✅
Ans:
Inference (Anumāna) is a form of mediate knowledge based on previous experience. It is classified into Svārthānumāna (for personal knowledge) and Parārthānumāna (for proving to others). The differences are as follows:
3. What is perception? State any three differences between Nirvikalpa and Savikalpa Pratyakṣa. (6 marks)✅
Ans:
Perception (Pratyakṣa) is direct knowledge obtained through the contact of the sense organs with an object. It is divided into:
Nirvikalpa Pratyakṣa (Indeterminate Perception): The initial, raw perception without any judgment.
Savikalpa Pratyakṣa (Determinate Perception): A processed perception that includes recognition and classification.
The differences between the two are as follows:
4. Define Kevalānvayi and Kevala Vyatireki Anumāna with suitable examples. (6 marks)
Ans:
Inference (Anumāna) is classified into different types based on its logical structure. Two of the main types are:
(a) Kevalānvayi Anumāna (Positive Inference)
In this type of inference, the middle term (Hetu) is always positively related to the major term (Sādhya).
There is no negative instance where the Hetu is absent.
Example:
All knowable objects are nameable.
The table is a knowable object.
Therefore, the table is a nameable object.
(b) Kevala Vyatireki Anumāna (Negative Inference)
In this inference, the Hetu is always negatively related to the Sādhya.
It means wherever the Hetu is absent, the Sādhya is also absent.
Example:
Whatever is not different from the other elements has no smell.
The earth has smell.
Therefore, the earth is different from other elements.
5. Define Pūrvavat and Śeṣavat Anumāna with suitable examples. (6 marks)✅
Ans:
Inference (Anumāna) can also be classified based on causal relations into two types:
(a) Pūrvavat Anumāna (Inference from Cause to Effect)
When we infer an unperceived effect from a perceived cause, it is called Pūrvavat Anumāna.
This is based on past experience where a cause leads to an effect.
Example:
There are dark clouds in the sky.
Dark clouds always result in rain.
Therefore, it will rain soon.
(b) Śeṣavat Anumāna (Inference from Effect to Cause)
When we infer an unperceived cause from a perceived effect, it is called Śeṣavat Anumāna.
The presence of an effect indicates that the cause must have occurred.
Example:
The river water is muddy and flowing rapidly.
Whenever a river becomes muddy and swift, there has been rainfall.
Therefore, it has rained previously.
6. Draw a table of the different classifications of Anumāna in Nyāya. (6 marks)✅
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